Geronimo

Geronimo, born Goyathlay ("One Who Yawns") around 1829 and died in 1909, was a prominent leader of the Bedonkohe band of the Chiricahua Apache, known as Ndé ("the people"). His life, centered in southeastern Arizona (including Cochise County), southwestern New Mexico, and northern Mexico, was marked by fierce resistance against Mexican and American encroachment during the Apache Wars (1861–1886). Geronimo’s leadership, strategic brilliance, and relentless fight for Chiricahua autonomy made him a legendary figure, though his legacy is complex, shaped by both Apache oral traditions and American narratives. Below is a detailed history of Geronimo’s life, focusing on his early years, rise to leadership, resistance campaigns, surrender, later years, and enduring legacy, with emphasis on his activities in the Chiricahua Mountains, Dragoon Mountains, and surrounding areas like the Willcox Playa.

 

Early Life and Background (1829–1850s) - **Birth and Family**: Geronimo was born around June 1829 near the Gila River in what is now western New Mexico, then part of Mexico, within the Bedonkohe band’s territory. His name, Goyathlay, was given in the Chiricahua Apache tradition, though he later adopted the name Geronimo, possibly derived from Mexican soldiers invoking St. Jerome ("Jerónimo") during battles. His father, Taklishim, and mother, Juana, were Bedonkohe, and he grew up in a matrilineal society where women held significant roles. Geronimo had several siblings, and his early life was shaped by Apache customs, including hunting, raiding, and spiritual practices tied to Ussen (the Creator) and White Painted Woman. - **Cultural Upbringing**: Raised in the rugged landscapes of the Gila and Mogollon Mountains, Geronimo learned survival skills—tracking, archery, and horsemanship—from childhood. The Bedonkohe, one of four Chiricahua bands (alongside Chukunen, Chíhéne, and Ndéndai), were semi-nomadic, moving between mountain strongholds and valleys like the Sulphur Springs Valley near the Willcox Playa. Geronimo’s spiritual training included vision quests and ceremonies, and he later claimed to have received a "power" from Ussen, enabling foresight and resilience, which bolstered his leadership. - **Marriage and Early Raids**: In the 1840s, Geronimo married Alope, a Bedonkohe woman, and they had three children. He began participating in raids against Mexican settlements in Sonora and Chihuahua, a cultural practice to acquire resources and resist encroachment. The Chiricahua Mountains and nearby Dragoon Mountains served as bases, with the Willcox Playa used for scouting and staging raids due to its open terrain. These early raids targeted livestock and goods, reflecting the Chiricahua’s economic reliance on raiding amid Mexican land grants disrupting their territory.

 

Catalyst for Resistance: The Santa Rita Massacre (1851) - **Massacre of Family**: In 1851, a pivotal event shaped Geronimo’s life. While he was away trading, Mexican soldiers from Sonora, led by Colonel José María Carrasco, attacked a Bedonkohe camp near Janos, Chihuahua, during a supposed peace parley. The attack, known as the Santa Rita massacre (or Janos massacre), killed Geronimo’s mother, wife Alope, and three children, along with many others. Devastated, Geronimo vowed lifelong vengeance against Mexicans, a driving force in his later campaigns. This loss, recounted in his 1906 autobiography (*Geronimo: His Own Story*), fueled his reputation as a relentless warrior. - **Alliance with Mangas Coloradas**: The massacre united Geronimo with Mangas Coloradas, the Chíhéne band leader, and other Apache groups. In 1851, Geronimo joined a large retaliatory raid against Mexican settlements in Sonora, using the Chiricahua Mountains as a base. His courage and strategic planning earned him respect, elevating his status within the Bedonkohe.

 

Rise to Leadership (1850s–1860s) - **Leadership Role**: By the late 1850s, Geronimo emerged as a war leader within the Bedonkohe, though not a hereditary chief, as Apache leadership was earned through merit. His charisma, tactical acumen, and spiritual claims—such as visions guiding his raids—gained him followers. He coordinated with Chukunen leader Cochise, whose territory included the Chiricahua and Dragoon Mountains, forming a powerful alliance. Geronimo’s raids targeted Mexican towns, often launched from strongholds like Cochise Stronghold or the Willcox Playa, which provided visibility for scouting. - **U.S. Contact and Early Relations**: After the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded Apache lands to the United States, Geronimo initially maintained a cautious peace with Americans, similar to Cochise. In the 1850s, he allowed safe passage for travelers through Bedonkohe territory, including the Gila River and Sulphur Springs Valley, in exchange for goods. However, American settlers and miners, drawn by the California Gold Rush, began encroaching, setting the stage for conflict.

 

Apache Wars and Resistance (1861–1886) The Apache Wars, sparked by the 1861 Bascom Affair, marked the height of Geronimo’s resistance against American and Mexican forces. While Cochise led the Chukunen, Geronimo became a key Bedonkohe war leader, orchestrating raids and evading capture across a vast region. - **Bascom Affair (1861)**: When Lieutenant George Bascom falsely accused Cochise of kidnapping a child and attempted to detain him at Apache Pass in the Chiricahua Mountains, Geronimo was likely nearby, supporting Cochise’s retaliation. The execution of Cochise’s relatives prompted widespread raids, with Geronimo leading Bedonkohe warriors from the Gila and Chiricahua Mountains. The Willcox Playa served as a scouting point to monitor U.S. troop movements. - **Alliance with Cochise (1861–1872)**: Geronimo fought alongside Cochise, particularly in the 1862 Battle of Apache Pass, where they ambushed U.S. troops under Captain Thomas Roberts. The Chiricahua used elevated positions in the Chiricahua Mountains, but howitzers forced a retreat, leading to the establishment of Fort Bowie. Geronimo’s raids targeted settlements like Tucson and Pinos Altos, New Mexico, killing an estimated 150–200 settlers and soldiers by 1863. His tactics—ambushes, dawn raids, and retreats to mountain strongholds—made him elusive. - **Mangas Coloradas’ Death (1863)**: After Mangas Coloradas was betrayed and killed by U.S. forces under a flag of truce, Geronimo intensified his raids, taking a more prominent leadership role. He operated from the Chiricahua Mountains, Dragoon Mountains, and Sierra Madre in Mexico, using the Willcox Playa for reconnaissance. His band, often numbering 20–50 warriors, struck stagecoaches, ranches, and mining camps, then vanished into rugged terrain. - **Post-Cochise Resistance (1872–1886)**: After Cochise negotiated the Chiricahua Reservation in 1872, Geronimo initially respected the peace but grew distrustful as U.S. policies faltered. The reservation, covering the Chiricahua and Dragoon Mountains, was dissolved in 1876, two years after Cochise’s death, and the Chiricahua were forcibly relocated to the San Carlos Apache Reservation, a barren area. Geronimo, unwilling to submit, led breakouts from San Carlos in 1877, 1879, 1881, 1883, and 1885, each time retreating to the Sierra Madre or Chiricahua Mountains. - **1877–1881**: Geronimo led raids across Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico, often with leaders like Juh and Naiche (Cochise’s son). The U.S. Army, under General George Crook, pursued him with thousands of troops and Apache scouts, but Geronimo’s knowledge of the terrain, including hideouts near the Willcox Playa, kept him free. - **1883–1885 Breakouts**: After surrendering in 1883 under Crook’s campaign, Geronimo escaped San Carlos in 1885 with 134 followers, including women and children, sparking his final campaign. He raided settlements, eluding 5,000 U.S. troops and 3,000 Mexican soldiers. Key actions included attacks on ranches near Fort Apache and skirmishes in the Sierra Madre.

 

Final Surrender (1886) - **Context**: By 1886, Geronimo’s band was reduced to about 38 people, exhausted by constant pursuit and dwindling resources. General Nelson A. Miles replaced Crook, employing relentless campaigns and Apache scouts, including former allies, to track Geronimo. - **Negotiations**: In March 1886, Geronimo met Crook at Cañon de los Embudos in Mexico, agreeing to surrender but fleeing due to fears of execution. In September 1886, Lieutenant Charles Gatewood, who knew Geronimo from prior negotiations, met him in Skeleton Canyon, Arizona, near the Chiricahua Mountains. Gatewood, with Apache scouts, persuaded Geronimo to surrender to Miles, promising exile rather than death. - **Surrender**: On September 4, 1886, Geronimo surrendered at Skeleton Canyon, marking the end of the Apache Wars. He reportedly said, “Once I moved about like the wind. Now I surrender to you and that is all.” His band was sent to Fort Marion, Florida, as prisoners of war, along with most Chiricahua, including non-combatants.

 

Life as a Prisoner of War (1886–1909) - **Exile and Imprisonment**: After surrendering, Geronimo and approximately 500 Chiricahua were sent to Fort Marion, Florida, then Mount Vernon Barracks, Alabama, where harsh conditions caused many deaths. In 1894, they were relocated to Fort Sill, Oklahoma, under a Congressional provision. Geronimo lived as a prisoner of war, never returning to Arizona. At Fort Sill, he farmed, participated in ceremonies, and adapted to confinement, though he longed for his homeland. - **Public Figure**: Geronimo became a celebrity, exploited by American media and exhibitors. He appeared at events like the 1898 Trans-Mississippi Exposition, the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair, and Theodore Roosevelt’s 1905 inaugural parade, selling photographs and autographs. He dictated his autobiography to S.M. Barrett in 1906, offering insights into his life, though filtered through interpreters and American editors. - **Later Years**: Geronimo converted to Christianity in 1903, joining the Dutch Reformed Church, but maintained Apache spiritual practices. He expressed regret for surrendering but sought to preserve Chiricahua culture. In 1909, he died of pneumonia at Fort Sill, aged around 80, and was buried in the Apache Prisoner of War Cemetery. His grave, later desecrated, remains a site of pilgrimage.

 

Legacy and Impact - **Apache Symbol**: Among Chiricahua descendants in the Fort Sill Apache Tribe (Oklahoma) and Mescalero Apache Tribe (New Mexico), Geronimo is revered as a symbol of resistance and survival. His leadership preserved Apache autonomy against overwhelming odds, though his surrender marked the end of Chiricahua freedom in their homeland. - **American Icon**: Geronimo’s image as a fierce warrior was romanticized in American media, films (e.g., *Geronimo: An American Legend*, 1993), and military references (e.g., “Geronimo” as a paratrooper cry). However, these portrayals often oversimplify his motives, ignoring the cultural and historical context of his resistance. - **Cultural Preservation**: Despite exile, Geronimo’s efforts to maintain Apache traditions, such as storytelling and ceremonies, influenced descendants. His autobiography, though mediated, preserves Bedonkohe perspectives. The Chiricahua Mountains, Cochise Stronghold, and Willcox Playa remain sacred to his legacy. - **Historical Significance**: Geronimo’s campaigns delayed American settlement in the Southwest, forcing the U.S. to deploy significant resources. His surrender ended major Native resistance in the region, but the Chiricahua’s exile as prisoners of war until 1913 highlighted U.S. policies of displacement.

 

Key Characteristics of Geronimo’s Leadership - **Guerrilla Tactics**: Geronimo’s use of the Chiricahua and Dragoon Mountains, with hideouts like Cochise Stronghold and scouting from the Willcox Playa, made him nearly uncatchable. His small, mobile bands struck swiftly and vanished, leveraging terrain knowledge. - **Spiritual Leadership**: His claim of spiritual power from Ussen, including visions guiding raids, inspired followers and reinforced his authority. This blended with practical strategies, such as coordinating with multiple bands. - **Resilience**: Despite personal losses and relentless pursuit, Geronimo’s five breakouts from San Carlos demonstrated his refusal to submit, earning him both Apache admiration and American notoriety.

 

Challenges in Documentation - **Limited Sources**: Geronimo’s early life is sparsely documented, relying on his 1906 autobiography, Apache oral traditions, and U.S. military records, which are biased. Ethnographies by Morris Opler and Keith Basso provide Apache perspectives but were recorded decades later. - **Mythologization**: American accounts often portray Geronimo as a savage or folk hero, exaggerating his ferocity or simplifying his motives. His autobiography, dictated through interpreters, reflects his voice but is shaped by American editors. - **Apache Secrecy**: Chiricahua traditions, such as concealing burial sites or spiritual details, limit documentation, though Geronimo’s openness in later years provided rare insights.

 

Summary Geronimo (1829–1909), a Bedonkohe Chiricahua leader, rose to prominence after the 1851 Santa Rita massacre, leading raids against Mexicans and Americans from the Chiricahua and Dragoon Mountains, using the Willcox Playa for scouting. His resistance during the Apache Wars (1861–1886), alongside Cochise and Mangas Coloradas, targeted settlements to preserve Apache autonomy. After multiple breakouts from the San Carlos Reservation, he surrendered in 1886 at Skeleton Canyon, becoming a prisoner of war in Florida, Alabama, and Fort Sill. In exile, he became a public figure, died in 1909, and left a legacy as a symbol of resistance. His life is preserved in Apache oral histories and resources like the Fort Sill Apache Tribe (fortsillapache-nsn.gov) and Angie Debo’s *Geronimo: The Man, His Time, His Place*.