The Chiricahua Apache, a band of Apache Native Americans, have a rich and resilient history rooted in the rugged landscapes of southeastern Arizona (including Cochise County), southwestern New Mexico, and northern Mexico. Known as Ndé ("the people") in their own language, they were fierce warriors and skilled survivors, deeply connected to their homeland. Below is a general overview of their history, tracing their origins, key events, resistance against colonization, forced displacement, and modern legacy.

Origins and Early Life - **Pre-Colonial Era**: The Chiricahua Apache are part of the Southern Athabaskan-speaking peoples who migrated from northern regions to the Southwest by around 1400 CE. They inhabited the Chiricahua, Dragoon, and Dos Cabezas Mountains, as well as the surrounding deserts and plains, living as semi-nomadic hunters, gatherers, and raiders. Their society was matrilineal, organized into four loosely affiliated bands: Chíhéne (Warm Springs/Eastern Chiricahua), Chukunen (Chiricahua proper/Central Chiricahua), Bidánku (Bedonkohe/Northeastern Chiricahua), and Ndéndai (Southern Chiricahua). They had no centralized tribal authority but followed strong leaders like Cochise, Victorio, and Geronimo. - **Culture and Lifestyle**: The Chiricahua relied on the land, hunting deer, gathering agave, and raiding when necessary. Their spiritual practices centered on figures like White Painted Woman and ceremonies like the Sunrise Ceremony for young women. Their language, a dialect of Southern Athabaskan, was complex and integral to their identity. They developed guerrilla warfare tactics, leveraging their knowledge of the terrain to evade enemies.

Contact and Conflict with Colonizers - **Spanish and Mexican Periods (1600s–1848)**: The Chiricahua encountered Spanish colonizers in the 17th century, leading to sporadic conflicts over land and resources. The Spanish introduced horses, which the Chiricahua mastered, enhancing their mobility and raiding capabilities. After Mexico gained independence in 1821, conflicts intensified due to Mexican policies encouraging settlement on Apache lands. The 1852 Treaty of Santa Fe, signed by Chief Mangas Coloradas, promised peace and land protections but was never ratified by the U.S., leading to distrust. - **U.S. Expansion and Apache Wars (1848–1886)**: After the U.S. acquired the Southwest via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), settlers and miners encroached on Chiricahua lands, sparking the Apache Wars. Key events include: - **Bascom Affair (1861)**: A misunderstanding (US Military Blunder) involving the kidnapping of a settler’s child led to U.S. military retaliation against Chief Cochise, igniting widespread conflict. - **Cochise’s Resistance (1861–1872)**: Cochise, leader of the Chukunen band, led raids against settlers and the U.S. Army. In 1872, General Oliver O. Howard negotiated a peace treaty, establishing the Chiricahua Reservation in southeastern Arizona, encompassing their ancestral mountains. - **Reservation Dissolution (1876)**: After Cochise’s death in 1874, the U.S. dissolved the Chiricahua Reservation, citing costs and settler pressure, and forcibly relocated many to the San Carlos Apache Reservation, a barren area. This prompted escapes by leaders like Geronimo, who continued resistance. - **Geronimo’s Campaigns (1876–1886)**: Geronimo, a Bedonkohe leader, led raids across Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico, evading capture by thousands of U.S. and Mexican troops. His final surrender in 1886 at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona, marked the end of major Apache resistance.

Forced Removal and Imprisonment - **Prisoners of War (1886–1913)**: After Geronimo’s surrender, the U.S. government declared approximately 500 Chiricahua and Warm Springs Apache prisoners of war, removing them from their homelands. They were sent to Fort Marion and Fort Pickens in Florida, then Mount Vernon Barracks in Alabama, where harsh conditions caused significant loss of life due to disease and malnutrition. By 1894, about 296 survivors were relocated to Fort Sill Military Reservation in Oklahoma under a Congressional provision, still under military control. - **The Parting (1913)**: In 1913, the Chiricahua were offered freedom and a choice: relocate to the Mescalero Apache Reservation in New Mexico or remain in Oklahoma on small land allotments. About 180 moved to Mescalero, while 81 (roughly 20 families) stayed in Oklahoma, forming the nucleus of the Fort Sill Apache Tribe.

20th Century and Federal Recognition - **Fort Sill Apache Tribe (1913–1976)**: The Chiricahua who remained in Oklahoma faced challenges maintaining their identity without a formal reservation. They received 160-acre allotments near Apache and Fletcher, Oklahoma, but many lost land due to economic pressures. In the 1950s, they resisted federal termination policies, which aimed to dissolve tribal status. Their efforts culminated in federal recognition as the Fort Sill Apache Tribe in 1976, with a constitution and a small trust land base of 130 acres in Caddo, Comanche, and Grady Counties. - **Mescalero Apache Tribe**: The Chiricahua who joined the Mescalero Apache Reservation in New Mexico integrated with Mescalero and Lipan Apache, forming a blended tribal identity. The Mescalero Apache Tribe, recognized in 1936, became a primary home for Chiricahua descendants, with a 463,000-acre reservation. - **Land Claims (1979)**: Both the Fort Sill and Mescalero Apache Tribes pursued claims through the Indian Claims Commission for lost ancestral lands. In 1979, the U.S. Court of Claims awarded $6 million, split 69% to Mescalero and 31% to Fort Sill Apache, acknowledging historical land theft but not restoring territory.

Modern Era and Legacy - **Current Status**: Today, Chiricahua descendants primarily live on the Mescalero Apache Reservation in New Mexico (about 3,500–4,000 members) or with the Fort Sill Apache Tribe in Oklahoma (about 650 enrolled members). Some live in urban areas or unrecognized communities in Mexico. The Fort Sill Apache maintain 130 acres in Oklahoma, 4 sacred acres in Cochise County, Arizona, and 30 acres in Luna County, New Mexico, where they operate Apache Homelands. - **Cultural Preservation**: The Chiricahua continue traditional practices like the Sunrise Ceremony, basketry, and storytelling, though their language is endangered. Both tribes support revitalization through education and cultural programs. Notable figures include Allan Houser (Fort Sill Apache), a renowned sculptor, and Mildred Cleghorn, the first Fort Sill Apache chairperson. - **Ongoing Struggles**: Recent legal fights, such as *Apache Stronghold v. United States* (2014–2025), highlight efforts to protect sacred sites like Oak Flat in Arizona from mining. The Fort Sill Apache’s 2014 victory against New Mexico affirmed their gaming rights, reinforcing their sovereignty.

Summary

The Chiricahua Apache’s history is one of resilience, from their pre-colonial life in the Southwest to fierce resistance during the Apache Wars, forced removal as prisoners of war, and division into the Fort Sill and Mescalero Apache Tribes. Despite losing their Arizona reservation and enduring 27 years of imprisonment, they achieved federal recognition and continue to preserve their culture and advocate for their rights. Their legacy, shaped by leaders like Cochise and Geronimo, endures through modern tribal governance, cultural revitalization, and legal battles for sacred lands. For more details, contact the Fort Sill Apache Tribe (fortsillapache-nsn.gov) or Mescalero Apache Tribe (mescaleroapachetribe.com).